Office workers 'risk blood clots'

It is important to take a break

Workers who spend excessive amounts of time at their desk could be putting their lives at risk, research suggests.

The Medical Research Institute in New Zealand found they may have a higher risk of developing potentially fatal blood clots.

The researchers found a third of patients admitted to hospital with deep vein thrombosis (DVT) were office workers who spent hours at a computer.

The study will be published in the New Zealand Medical Journal.

People who work in offices are not actually getting up and walking around like they used to Professor Cary Cooper Lancaster University

DVT is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

The clots can travel to the heart, lungs or brain, causing chest pain, breathlessness or possible death from a heart attack or stroke.

The condition has been dubbed "economy class syndrome" because passengers sitting on long-haul flights without space to stretch out were considered as most at risk.

The New Zealand team examined a sample of 62 people admitted to hospital with blood clots, and found 34% had been sitting at their desk for long periods.

In comparison, 21% had recently travelled on a long-distance flight. However, the researchers accepted that many more people sit at their desk for long periods, than travel on long-haul flights.

Lead researcher Professor Richard Beasley said some office workers who developed clots sat at their screens for 14 hours a day.

He said: "Some of them were going three to four hours at a time without getting up."

Call centres

Professor Beasley said the problem was most common in the information technology industry and in call-centres.

Professor Cary Cooper, an expert in organisational psychology and health at Lancaster University, said he was not surprised by the findings.

He said people were working longer hours than ever before, and often not taking a proper lunch break, preferring instead to eat a sandwich at their desk while attending to emails.

"People who work in offices are not actually getting up and walking around like they used to," he said.

"New technology has made it easier for them to do this. I think it is causing people physical trouble because they are not taking exercise, but also psychological trouble because they are not interacting with their colleagues, or teambuilding in a face-to-face way."

DVT affects about 100,000 people and kills up to 1,000 people in the UK each year.

A recent study by the Chartered Management Institute and Workplace Health Connect found employers are failing to provide adequate levels of health and well-being support.

It found fewer than one in five organisations conduct workplace health evaluations and fewer than half provide staff with ergonomic advice.

reposted from: bbc
my: highlights / emphasis / key points / comments

Stop taking sides - The term 'with us or against us' should only be used by fringe lunatics.

March 14, 2007 6:40 am

QUESTION: What is the one thing you would most like to see happen by this time next year?

On the internet everyone's a victim. Or to be precise, almost every tribe or grouping has found an outlet and the necessary commentator or statistics to paint themselves as a victim of oppression. Couple that with another trend, that people on the internet seem to gravitate towards those of similar views, and we have a problem.

The problem is that whatever dialogue is necessary to resolve issues of cohesion, tolerance, respect or oppression is becoming increasingly drowned out by those who scream the loudest on either side.

Over the next year I'd like to see more progressive liberals on "one side" building alliances and bridges with progressive liberals on "the other side". I'd like to see people stop thinking about their own tribe alone and consider where "the enemy" is coming from; to consider their fears and insecurity before re-asserting one's own. To have more empathy for everyone, not just their own.

I'd like to see a more progressive discussion on race, faith and gender politics tackling inequality for everyone. A bit vague, I know, but Tony Blair and George Bush will be gone soon. After that I hope most people will realise that the term "with us or against us" should only be used by or apply to fringe lunatics.

For other blogs in Cif's first anniversary series click here.

reposted from: cif - Guardian
my: highlights / emphasis / key points / comments

Introduction to Humanism by COHE - Lesson 2: The Contemporary Humanist Philosophy: Lifestance Humanism

Overview
The word "humanism" has been used in many different senses over the years. It has referred to the educational program of Renaissance scholars, as well as to movements in art, literature, psychology, architecture, and other cultural fields. While these senses differ, they all share a central focus on humanity, often representing a move away from concerns with "divinity."

This distinctively human focus is also true of the most common use of "humanism" today: the humanist lifestance we earlier defined as "a godless philosophy based on reason and compassion." This form of humanism is sometimes referred to as "philosophical humanism" or "lifestance humanism" in contradistinction to the "cultural humanism" of the Renaissance and various artistic movements.

"Lifestance humanism" refers to a distinct worldview that addresses the fundamental questions of life. It is the form of humanism supported and promoted by the "humanist movement" -- the many humanist groups, projects, and organizations that exist around the world. It is sometimes called "secular humanism" or "Humanism" with a capital 'H'.

"Lifestance humanism" is also the form of humanism studied and utilized in the Continuum of Humanist Education. We will refer to it simply as "humanism."

Lifestance explored

"Lifestance" is itself an unfamiliar term to most people, but over the past two decades it has become increasingly common -- initially in Britain, but now also in Europe and the whole of the English-speaking world -- as a term that is inclusive of religion and non-religious world-views. A "lifestance" is, at best, a comprehensive conception of reality, or, at least, a set of ideas that help us understand the world and find meaning and value in life.

Many lifestances are clearly religious; for example, Christianity is a religious lifestance, as are Hinduism and Islam. Some lifestances are generally viewed as non-religious, such as the dialectical materialism of Karl Marx and his followers, Ayn Rand's Objectivism, and humanism. Other lifestances, such as Buddhism and Confucianism, have traditionally been classed as religions, but do not always sit comfortably in that category. The concept of "lifestance" encompasses them all. (See Developing Potential Without Religion, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area V, Religion and Spirituality, for more detailed discussion of the meaning of "religion" and why humanism should not be classified as a religion.)

Lifestances address fundamental existential questions -- sometimes called "ultimate questions" -- such as, "How do we gain knowledge of our world?" "What is the nature of the universe?" and "How should I live my life?" Everyone has a lifestance: we all have conceptions of what exists and what is of value. But most people may not give much thought to the underlying assumptions that guide their lives: their lifestance has never been made explicit or critically examined. Indeed, it is in the nature of many religious lifestances that we take these underlying assumptions of life as a matter of faith.

Yet our underlying assumptions profoundly affect how we understand the world and live our lives. If your underlying assumptions about life are false, contradictory, confused, or in other ways flawed, you may find yourself leading a confused life marked by harmful illusions, bad choices, and painful conflicts. A well thought out lifestance can lead to greater understanding and success in life. Of course, what you consider "success in life" will depend on your lifestance!

Humanists feel that critically examining your lifestance will not only improve your understanding and success in life, but also make your life more truly your own. Humanists tend to agree with Socrates that "the unexamined life is not worth living." For the humanist, as for Kant (see sidebar in Lesson I), enlightenment means growing beyond dependence on the views and instructions of others -- be they parents, governments, or religious authorities -- and having the courage to live life according to your own understanding and decisions. The Continuum of Humanist Education aims to help students achieve this state of self-determination. That is why COHE has adopted Kant's motto of the Enlightenment: Sapere Aude - Dare to Know!

The fundamentals of humanism

One way to understand the humanist lifestance is to look at its answers to three broad and fundamental questions:

How do we gain knowledge and understanding of our world?

What do we know about the world and humanity's place in it?

How should we live our lives?

All lifestances seek to answer these ultimate questions of existence. Humanism addresses them by explicitly relying on humanity's own moral and intellectual resources.

How do we gain knowledge and understanding of our world?
The first question falls within the areas of philosophy called epistemology and methodology. Humanism embraces a rational methodology and an empirical epistemology. In less technical language, this means that humanists believe rational inquiry based on evidence is the best tool for gaining reliable knowledge of our world, while accepting that all claims to knowledge are fallible and provisional. This methodology has been formalized into the process called "science." (For a detailed examination of the scientific method, see Evolution, Creationism and the Nature of Science, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area II, Science and Humanism.) Humanists are convinced that all aspects of life and every area of human endeavor should be open to free inquiry and rational criticism.

Thus, in answering the second question
-- what do we know about the world and humanity's place in it? --
humanism looks to the findings of science. It looks to physics and cosmology to explain the beginning and development of the universe. And it looks to the life sciences, including discoveries about the evolution of life, to explain the origins of the human species and its place in the world.

Humanism takes a "naturalistic" view of the world, seeing no good evidence for any supernatural forces or powers. Humanists therefore do not believe in any gods, devils, or "Higher Beings," nor in any kind of afterlife or spiritual plane. Humanism accepts that humans are the products of natural evolution and that human understanding and human values have no divine or supernatural component: human values and understanding arise from the interaction of human nature, social environment, and intellectual exploration. Humanists know that our scientific understanding of the world will change and improve as science continues its open-ended quest to explore, experiment, and explain.

As to the third fundamental question
-- how we should live our lives? --
humanism is an ethical philosophy aiming to bring out the best in people so that all people can have the best in life. Humanism affirms that people have the right and responsibility to give shape and meaning to their lives. It emphasizes the positive development of our own personal potential, but recognizes that this requires respect for everyone else's right to fulfill their potential.

Although the philosophy of morality -- ethics -- has nothing like the level of agreement of science, humanists do agree on certain broad principles, such as support for human rights, and humanists have reached broad consensus on many different issues. (For a humanist exploration of the foundations of morality, see Sacred vs. Secular Ethics, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area VI, Ethics. For a discussion of the humanist position on a range of contemporary ethical issues from abortion to voluntary euthanasia, see Developing Human Potential Without Religion, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area V, Religion and Spirituality.)

Manifestoes and other statements of humanism

People accustomed to creedal religions that proclaim a core doctrine often assume that humanism, likewise, must include statements of "dogma" which bind its followers to certain beliefs. They conclude that the various humanist manifestos and declarations published over the years are proclamations of faith that all humanists must adhere to. This assumption is false. There is no requirement for humanists to agree with any manifesto or statement and, indeed, there is an enormous diversity of opinion in the humanist community about virtually every one in print. Each of these statements does, however, attempt to summarize the current beliefs and most widely agreed principles of the humanist movement -- to provide a sort of "snapshot" of the humanism of the day.

The Humanist Manifesto of 1933 brought to the public's attention a movement which explicitly rejected absolute authority, divine commandments, and revealed knowledge in favor of democracy, human values, and free inquiry. This movement used "humanism" as a call to seek human solutions to life's questions and society's problems. The authors of this first Humanist Manifesto included a variety of leading intellectuals but with a preponderance of liberal religious thinkers who had outgrown their belief in God. In contrast to the freethought movement, the 1933 Humanist Manifesto called its viewpoint "religious" -- although the only thing it seems to have in common with traditional religion is a focus on finding meaning and value in life. The description of humanism as "religious" was to prove very controversial among humanists, as was the authors' foray into economic matters. Written in the depth of the Great Depression, the manifesto argued that the "existing acquisitive and profit-motivated society has shown itself to be inadequate and that a radical change in methods, controls, and motives must be instituted."

In the wake of World War II, many new groups sprang into existence in Europe and elsewhere to represent people searching for a democratic and ethical alternative to religion. The term "humanist" was widely adopted, but many of the new "humanist" organizations disagreed with key aspects of the 1933 Humanist Manifesto. An increasing number of humanist groups did not share the manifesto's conception of humanism as a new form of "religion." In addition, many humanists objected to the manifesto's criticism of free market capitalism and its call for "a socialized and cooperative economic order."

Dissatisfaction with the Humanist Manifesto resulted in the publication of new and different statements, declarations, and manifestoes. Like the original Humanist Manifesto, most of these declarations were American. These included the Humanist Manifesto II (published in 1973), The Affirmations of Humanism (1980), A Declaration of Interdependence: A New Global Ethics (1988), and Humanist Manifesto III (2003).

In 2002 the global humanist organization, the International Humanist and Ethical Union, celebrated its 50th anniversary by issuing the Amsterdam Declaration of Humanism. These various declarations further refined the consensus of humanist thought, with a more global emphasis of humanism emerging. They either rejected or ignored any reference to humanism as "religious" -- increasingly settling on the word "lifestance" as an alternative to "religion" -- and avoided taking sides between socialist and capitalist humanists.

Most of the recent statements cover very much the same ground: for example, it is hard to find any disagreements among The Affirmations of Humanism, the Amsterdam Declaration of Humanism, and the Humanist Manifesto III, and the rest differ only by virtue of their greater length and detail.

Meaning and purpose in life

A central question addressed by many lifestances is the purpose or meaning of life. Humanists ponder this question too, but they are not persuaded that human life was intentionally created to serve a specific purpose. In fact, humanists do not see reason to believe life was created at all; they agree with the scientific community's view that it evolved naturally without any guarantee of transcendent purpose or supernatural significance. Humanists don't feel that their lives are diminished by a scientific explanation of human origins, however; on the contrary, humanists see this knowledge as an exciting opportunity to create their own meaning and purpose in life. For a humanist, this ongoing creative quest is far more rewarding than following someone else's idea of existential fulfillment.

Creating our own purposes in life and then striving to achieve them can, in itself, provide a sense of meaning. But meaning can also derive from the good we do, the relationships we build, the quest for intellectual growth, the satisfaction of productive work, the enjoyment of creative or artistic pursuits, and the influence we have on our friends and society. The meaning of these achievements is not independent of ourselves; on the contrary, their meaning is ours to define. This attitude has often been summarized as, "The purpose of life is to live a life of purpose."

There is considerable evidence from psychology that happiness and self-esteem result from the choice to live a full life in pursuit of goals we find meaningful and valuable. Humanists would add that gaining a rational and realistic comprehension of why things happen -- and what, if anything, we can do to change ourselves and our world -- can give individuals an even greater sense of understanding and control over their lives.

Humanists feel that the humanist lifestance can lead to greater happiness and fulfillment by releasing humans from the chains of original sin, bad kharma from previous lives, and other self-denigrating beliefs. They believe that individuals should take responsibility for their own actions and strive for moral excellence, but not feel guilty about circumstances outside their control. Humanism focuses on living happy, ethical, and fulfilling lives in the here and now, not feelings of sin or shame.

The open society

The fundamental concepts of humanism have given rise to a diversity of shared positions and goals among humanists. For example, humanism's ethical dimension means that humanists have a commitment to building a society that enables more people to fulfill their potential. And the commitment to the scientific method means that humanists try to use reason and evidence to inform their political goals.

Unfortunately, on subjects such as economics, human behavior, and social relations -- where facts are often complex, uncertain, and fluid -- science and humanism cannot provide comprehensive and definite answers. Humanists, therefore, hold a wide array of political opinions, from socialist and Green, through liberal and moderate, to conservative and libertarian. In fact, humanist thought can be seen as influential in the development of all these political positions.

Humanists do agree on many general political principles, though. They advocate for freedom, democracy, and all the other fundamental human rights. They support what humanist philosopher Karl Popper termed the "Open Society." (In the Open Society and Its Enemies -- written during World War II -- Popper contrasted the open societies of liberal democracies with the closed societies of totalitarian states such as the Third Reich and the Soviet Union.) An open society allows a diversity of opinions, values and lifestances, and encourages the necessary debate and compromises between competing interests and ideals. The open society is a recognition of the impossibility of certainty on political questions and the need for diversity, free inquiry, and debate in a healthy society.

The open society also requires that the state be neutral among lifestances and guarantees freedom of religion or belief. Humanists are, therefore, strong supporters of complete separation of religion and state.

Commitment to individual freedom and social pluralism is clearly a major political principle of humanism. But it also helps define the limits of humanist political aspirations. Because humanism affirms that individuals have a responsibility to make up their own minds about politics, it encourages a diversity of political opinions among humanists.

Humanism is committed to an open mind in an open society. For this reason, humanists -- at least in the liberal democracies of the West -- can give the appearance of having no unifying political agenda. Humanists in the established democracies often say that humanist groups should not be involved in politics because humanists have no common political agenda. In one sense they are right; humanist groups should avoid labeling passing partisan policies as "the official humanist position." In another sense they are wrong, because there are unified humanist political positions -- for example, the belief in human rights, secular government, and the open society.

Self-determination

There is another political and social area where humanists generally find themselves united behind common goals in opposition to many other groups and lifestances. This is the area of individual autonomy and freedom.

Across the world one encounters laws that limit sexual freedom, that restrict freedom in health and medical choices, that deny individual control over fertility and reproduction, and that outlaw potentially lifesaving medical research and treatments. There are even laws in most countries which, under the gravest penalties of law, deny individuals the freedom to choose whether they live or die.

Humanists are committed to the principle of "self-determination": the right of individuals to create their own meaning and values in life, and to shape their lives in accord with their values. Religious beliefs and authoritarian laws still deny many freedoms and restrict people's right to self determination. Many humanist individuals and organizations, therefore, work to expand the right of individuals to control their own bodies and their own lives.

(Humanist positions on many contemporary social and ethical issues are explored in Developing Potential Without Religion, Dr. Jeaneane Fowler's cornerstone course in COHE Study Area V, Religion and Spirituality. More detailed political and legal issues, specifically relating to the United States constitution, are covered in Religion and the Constitution, Dr. Timothy Gordinier's cornerstone course in COHE Study Area IV, Law and Politics.)

An open-ended quest

As this introduction shows, humanism seeks to provide answers to life's questions based on the best available knowledge and philosophy. But sometimes the best available knowledge still leaves a lot of unanswered questions!

From this continuing search emerges a humanism which is an open-ended lifestance: humanist views are open to change and are constantly evolving. Humanists don't expect the one, final, absolute truth to be revealed to them. On the contrary, they hold that all opinions are fallible and provisional, and that free inquiry and debate are essential to the process of learning and developing. Thus, humanists value tolerance, pluralism, and critical inquiry as positive and beneficial qualities in society -- not simply as necessary evils.

And humanists embrace change: whether the personal change that comes from self-development, or the changes in society that result from human enterprise and creativity. Indeed, the humanist focus on understanding and adapting to the world around us also helps individuals cope with a society that is changing at an increasingly rapid pace.

Another result of the humanist reliance on science and common sense is that many people are humanists without realizing it! Hundreds of millions of people around the world agree with the humanist philosophy of living a happy and productive life based on reason and compassion.

These tacit humanists reach similar conclusions without meeting like-minded people or reading particular texts. They work out their humanist lifestance independently by learning what science has discovered, by examining supernatural claims, and by sharing in the universal human values that have arisen in the global community of the modern world. It is often a surprise to these people to discover their personal lifestance is called "humanism" and that organizations exist to defend and advance their beliefs!

Although it is not necessary to belong to a humanist organization -- or even to be aware of the humanist movement -- to be a good humanist, individuals who do associate with humanist organizations may experience a welcome sense of belonging and community. These organizations may provide services that connect to a person's lifestance: for example, rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, moral education for children, and some forms of counseling. They may offer a forum for discussion, social interaction, and activism with like-minded individuals. But many humanists support humanist organizations simply because they defend their rights, advance their beliefs, and translate their principles into practical projects to help people and improve society. (Humanist Activism, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area I, Humanist Activism and Organization, explores how and why humanists can involve themselves in humanist groups and campaigns.)

Humanists are committed to investigating all areas of human life through the lens of critical inquiry. They see education and self-improvement as a life-long responsibility for all individuals. With this in mind, the Continuum of Humanist Education seeks not only to explain humanism but also to apply the principles of humanism and critical inquiry to other areas of human knowledge. We encourage you to explore, debate and criticize the ideas presented in this growing continuum of courses.

Multiple Choice Review Questions


Essay Review Questions

Some organizational definitions of humanism

"Humanism is a democratic and ethical lifestance which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethics based on human and other natural values in a spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality." -Minimum Statement of Humanism, International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU)

"Humanism is an approach to life based on reason and our common humanity, recognizing that moral values are properly founded on human nature and experience alone." - British Humanist Association

"Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that, without supernaturalism, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. The lifestance of Humanism -- guided by reason, inspired by compassion, and informed by experience -- encourages us to live life well and fully. It evolved through the ages and continues to develop through the efforts of thoughtful people who recognize that values and ideals, however carefully wrought, are subject to change as our knowledge and understandings advance." -The Humanist magazine, published by the American Humanist Association

"Humanism is a philosophy, world view, or lifestance based on naturalism -- the conviction that the universe or nature is all that exists or is real. Humanism serves, for many humanists, some of the emotional and social functions of a religion, but without belief in deities, transcendental beings, miracles, immortality, and the supernatural. Humanists seek to understand the universe by using science and its methods of critical inquiry -- logical reasoning, empirical evidence, and skeptical evaluation of conjectures and conclusions -- to obtain reliable knowledge. Humanists affirm that humans have the freedom to give meaning, value, and purpose to their lives by their own independent thought, free inquiry, and responsible, creative activity. Humanists stand for the building of a more humane, just, compassionate, and democratic society using a pragmaticethics based on human reason, experience, and reliable knowledge -- an ethics that judges the consequences of human actions by the well-being of all life on Earth." - The Virtual Community of Humanists

Varieties of humanism

Most humanist organizations, including the Institute for Humanist Studies, describe themselves as "non-religious," or may refer to their brand of humanism as "secular" or prefer to leave out descriptive adjectives altogether. But there are some important humanist groups that describe themselves as "religious." These humanist organizations embrace the same philosophical principles as non-religious humanists, affirming humanism as a godless philosophy based on reason and compassion. "Religious humanists" do not believe in the supernatural; they simply believe that the term "religious" can be understood to include non-supernatural lifestances such as humanism. Other humanists disagree.

The two most notable religious humanist groups are the American Ethical Union (the national organization for the Ethical Culture Movement) and the Society for Humanistic Judaism. These groups organize along more of a "congregational" model than most non-religious organizations. Ethical Culture societies often have a full-time leader who conducts weekly group gatherings and may also provide some pastoral functions to members. These groups are also often more comfortable with religious and spiritual language. In fact, the Humanistic Judaism movement celebrates many Jewish festivals, such as Rosh Hashanah, keeping many of the traditional rituals but without any supernatural references.

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) is a religion that is home to many humanists in the U.S. Surveys have suggested that between 50 and 75% of UUA members are humanists. But the UUA does not restrict membership to humanists: it is a non-creedal religion that is home to many Wiccans, Christians, Buddhists, and New Age seekers as well.

Outside of the U.S., there are few religious humanist groups still in existence.

What does humanism offer the individual?

* personal autonomy
* liberation from religious guilt, fear and subservience
* appreciation for human diversity
* a worldview based on the latest science
* ethics based on reason and compassion
* freedom to question established beliefs and explore new ideas
* a framework for judging the merit of ideas and claims
* a culture of creativity, innovation, tolerance, and cooperation
* resources to develop your personal potential
* courage to create meaning in life

"When I became convinced that the universe is natural, that all the ghosts and gods are myths, there entered into my brain, into my soul, into every drop of my blood the sense, the feeling, the joy of freedom. The walls of my prison crumbled and fell. The dungeon was flooded with light and all the bolts and bars and manacles became dust. I was no longer a servant, a serf, or a slave. There was for me no master in all the wide world, not even in infinite space. I was free -- free to think, to express my thoughts -- free to live my own ideal, free to live for myself and those I loved, free to use all my faculties, all my senses, free to spread imagination's wings, free to investigate, to guess and dream and hope, free to judge and determine for myself . . . I was free! I stood erect and fearlessly, joyously faced all worlds." - Robert G. Ingersoll, late 19th-century political leader and orator known as "The Great Agnostic"

Are you a humanist?

If you ...

* are skeptical of supernatural claims
* consider yourself non-religious
* count on having just this one life
* are convinced people can be ethical without religion
* expect human progress to result from human accomplishment rather than divine intervention, grace, or redemption
* think that science and reason are more reliable ways of gaining knowledge than faith, revelation, authority, or tradition
* view your life's meaning and purpose as your own opportunity and responsibility

... then you are probably a humanist!

reposted from: COHE
my: highlights / emphasis / key points / comments

Introduction to Humanism by COHE - Lesson 1: A brief history of humanist thought

Introduction to Humanism is a free course. A useful inline glossary is provided.

Lesson 1: A brief history of humanist thought:-

• Overview
• Humanism is a fairly new name for a very old philosophy. The basic principles of humanism -- skepticism of supernatural claims and an emphasis on living a fulfilling and ethical life without religion -- have been embraced by a wide variety of thinkers in different cultures for thousands of years. But not until the twentieth century did the word "humanism" become the common term for this worldview.
  
  Elements of humanist thought can be seen throughout human history. Just as human societies have always held a wide range of beliefs in gods and supernatural forces, it seems too that they have always included skeptics who have doubted these gods and sought to explain the world solely in natural terms. Similarly, human communities have always developed moral codes, and these have often been justified in non-religious terms.
  
  Unfortunately, religious skepticism and philosophical naturalism (the view that the world can be fully explained in natural terms without any need for supernatural claims) have been persecuted throughout history. Attempts to develop morality in humanist terms have frequently been attacked as threats to religious orthodoxy. Thus, public expressions of humanist ideas have often been suppressed and destroyed, and, at other times, such ideas have probably been voiced only in private.
  
  Nevertheless, there do exist accounts of humanist thought in many different cultures over many thousands of years. These accounts are often incomplete: sometimes the strongest remaining indications of humanist thinking in a society are seen in the work of artists or in the arguments of apologists who are defending religious orthodoxy against the skeptics of the day. (An interesting example still quoted today is the Old Testament statement that "The fool hath said in his heart that there is no god" [Psalm 14]. This insult suggests that even in Bronze-age Jewish society, atheist thinking was prevalent enough to motivate religious teachers to attack it!)
  
  Many of these humanist traditions have survived in some form to contribute to the humanist philosophies of the twenty-first century. Important humanist traditions include the great teachers and philosophical movements of Ancient China and India between three thousand and two thousand years ago; the philosophies of classical Greece and Rome, which survived in the Muslim world during the European Dark Ages and Medieval period, finally returning to Europe in the Renaissance; and the flowering of scientific and humanist thought in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment.
  
• The humanist tradition in ancient Asia
• Humanism has often been portrayed as a Western invention, but in fact humanist ideas have arisen in cultures all over the world. India and China, for example, have a rich history of humanist and naturalistic philosophy dating back at least three thousand years.
  
  The Lokayata movement, which thrived in India around 1000 BCE, criticized the Hindu religion of the day and developed a naturalistic philosophy of the cosmos. Four hundred years later, in the sixth century BCE, the Charvaka school of thought maintained that Hindu scripture is false, that there are no gods, that there is no immortal soul, that the priests are worthless, and that pleasure should be the aim of life. In addition to their naturalistic view of the cosmos, the Charvaka promoted a moral philosophy centered on human welfare: in the Mahabharata (the ancient Hindu epic poem) one of the Charvaka is put to death for criticizing the king's warmongering!
  
  Chinese philosophers of the sixth century BCE were also notable for their development of humanistic ethical philosophies and their skepticism about the supernatural. Their criticism of supernatural claims was often sly. For example, the great Taoist teacher Lao Tse (early to middle of the sixth century BCE) indicated his skepticism about supernatural claims when he said, "If lightning is the anger of the gods, the gods are concerned mostly with trees."
  
  In general, Chinese philosophers suggested that nothing could be known about the spiritual realm, rather than denying that such a realm existed. This agnosticism about supernatural claims led to humanist conclusions. The great teachers of the sixth century BCE argued that since humans could have no clear knowledge of the supernatural realm, supernatural claims could never provide a sound foundation for morality. They maintained that the best foundation for morality was an understanding of the natural world, human nature, and society.
  
• The most famous of these teachers is Confucius. The Confucians tried to replace traditional religious beliefs with an ethical system focused on responsibility to family and society. Confucianism emphasizes benevolence, respect for others, and reciprocity as the foundations of social order. An early expression of the Golden Rule of ethics is found in The Analects (the collected sayings) of Confucius: "Do not do to others what you would not like for yourself." The Confucians dismissed questions about the spiritual realm, instead promoting a practical outlook that rendered the gods irrelevant. According to tradition, when Confucius was asked how one should serve ghosts and spirits, he replied, "Until you have learned to serve men, how can you serve ghosts?"
  
• The humanism of Buddha
• Some scholars argue that the Buddha -- in the late sixth century BCE -- was a thoroughly naturalistic and humanist thinker, but that the schools of Buddhism that developed after his death largely submerged the Buddha's revolutionary humanist ideas beneath the traditional supernaturalism of South Asian religion.
  
  Certainly the Buddha advanced many naturalistic and humanistic ideas. These are particularly clear in the Pali Literature which is thought to be the earliest of the Buddhist writings. For example, the Buddha rejected the doctrine of an immortal soul, saying, "Since neither soul nor aught belonging to soul can really and truly exist, the view which holds that this I who am 'world,' who am 'soul,' shall hereafter live permanent, persisting, unchanging, yea abide eternally: is not this utterly and entirely a foolish doctrine?"
  
• Classical Greece and Rome
• In the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, the Greek world experienced a cultural flowering that was to transform human civilization. Many of history's most influential philosophers, historians, dramatists, and statesmen lived in Athens and other Greek city-states within a period of just three or four generations. This explosion in human understanding played an essential role in creating the world we live in today.
  
  Classical Greece was extraordinary in many ways. Its drama and art are almost as influential in shaping the modern world as its philosophy and politics. In all of these areas, Greek culture is notable for its focus on humanity. Whether in statues celebrating the human body, in plays exploring the human condition, in politics that created the first democracies, or in philosophy that recognized that "man is the measure of all things," Greek culture explored and celebrated humanity.
  
  Like the Chinese philosophers of the same period, the Greek philosophers of the sixth century BCE did not so much deny the existence of gods, as argue that they were unknowable and irrelevant. Therefore, they tried to develop knowledge and morality in reference to humanity instead of divinity.
  
  The focus on the human rather than the divine is well illustrated by the philosopher Protagoras (ca. 481-411 BCE). In his work Of the Gods, Protagoras said, "About the gods I have no means of knowing either that they exist or that they do not exist or what they are like to look at; many things prevent my knowing -- among others, the fact that they are never seen and the shortness of human life." Protagoras also made a statement often associated with humanism: "Man is the measure of all things, of the reality of those which are, and of the unreality of those which are not."
  
  Protagoras may also have developed the questioning dialogue as a means of seeking truth. But this method of inquiry is most associated with Socrates (ca. 469-399.) The Socratic Method can be seen as profoundly humanistic in the way it encourages untrammeled inquiry that is open to all parties. The great religious prophets of human history claimed to bring "God's truth" and absolute commandments, whereas Socrates is famous for saying he knew nothing and brought not answers, but a method of questioning.
  
  Other naturalistic philosophers and schools, such as Aristotle, the Atomists, and the Stoics, developed crucial ideas about nature and humanity that still influence humanist thought to this day. The ancient thinker who may have been closest to the ideas and temper of modern humanism was Epicurus (ca. 341 - 271 BCE).
  
  Following the materialist philosophy of the Atomists, Epicurus argued that everything in the cosmos was ultimately composed of material atoms and that all of our knowledge of the world came from our senses. Epicurus suggested that two things prevent people from trying to live a full and happy life: fear of the gods and fear of an afterlife. But the materialist philosophy of the Atomists removed the fear of the supernatural and the fear of death. Death meant annihilation for the person, because the mind (or soul) is composed of atoms that disperse upon death. Epicurus spoke of his "Four Herbs" to relieve the maladies of life:
  
  There is nothing to fear from gods,
  There is nothing to feel in death,
  Good can be attained,
  Evil can be endured.
  
  Epicurus described the purpose of philosophy as "the art of making life happy." He argued that nature and reason both show that pleasure is the sole good and that pain is the sole evil. But, contrary to some caricatures, the Epicureans did not encourage wanton indulgence in sensual pleasures. Epicurus argued that intellectual pleasures were better than physical pleasures -- although both were necessary to live a full and happy life -- and that "tranquility of the soul" was a key component of pleasure. Hedonistic indulgences might lead to short-term gratification, but one avoids them if they will cause disturbance and suffering in the longer term.
• The Epicureans therefore argued for moderation and balance in all aspects of life. In one of Epicurus's few surviving writings, his "Letter to Menoeceus," he wrote, "It is impossible to live pleasantly, without living wisely, virtuously and justly, just as we cannot live wisely, virtuously and justly without living pleasantly."
  
  For seven hundred years, throughout the Greek and Roman world, the humanist philosophy of Epicurus was a popular and respected model for living. But with the rise of the new religion of Christianity and the decline of Rome, the works of most non-Christian thinkers were destroyed or lost in the West. Europe entered the Dark Ages. When learning did begin to recover in the medieval period, it was ruthlessly controlled by the Christian Church. The works of many of the great classical philosophers survived in the scholastic centers of the Muslim world. It was not until the fifteenth century that the great classical philosophies were reintroduced to Europe in the rebirth of learning known as "The Renaissance."
  
• Teaching humanity
• Perhaps the most important of the Classical Greeks' contributions to world culture was the idea that human excellence can be taught. The Greeks created the concept of "liberal education," which they saw as a way to bring out the best in each and every individual. The heart of the Greek concept of liberal education was a program of subjects that included philosophy, logic, rhetoric, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, literature, and drama. The Greeks called this educational program paideia. The Romans made paideia the foundation of Roman education, translating paideia into the Latin Studia Humanitas (the study of humanity.)
  
  The Renaissance scholars who revived the Studia Humanitas, almost one thousand years after the Fall of Rome, became known as "humanists." Our modern term "humanism" also ultimately derives from the Latin Humanitas. (Studia Humanitas is also the root word for "Humanities"-- the university subjects derived from the Greek paideia.)
  
• Renaissance and the birth of science
• The Renaissance started as a movement to regain the intellectual glories of the ancient world, but ended by giving birth to the modern world. The Renaissance (from the French term meaning "rebirth") describes the period in European history beginning in the late fourteenth century and continuing through to the early seventeenth century. The characteristic intellectual outlook of the period is known as "Renaissance humanism".
• "Renaissance humanism" marks the transition between medieval supernaturalism and the scientific and secular outlook of modernity. While modern humanism owes much to Renaissance humanism, there are some important distinctions between the two forms of humanism.
• Contemporary humanists do not believe in God or the supernatural, whereas most Renaissance humanists believed in a god, often the traditional Christian God. What both kinds of humanists have in common is a focus on the concerns of this world, a belief in the "dignity of man," and a commitment to developing human potential.
  
  As the Renaissance progressed, leading thinkers became increasingly skeptical of medieval Christian dogma. The Church's response to these new ideas was often brutal. The Italian scientist Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) defended Copernicus's view that the Earth orbited the sun, criticized Christian ethics, and called for tolerance of differing religious belief. In 1600 the Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for refusing to recant these views.
  
  Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) also suffered at the hands of the Inquisition for promoting the Copernican view that the Earth orbited the sun. He avoided execution by renouncing this view. Galileo can be seen as the most important figure in the birth of modern science. His many discoveries revolutionized humanity's understanding of the cosmos. And he successfully argued that observation, experiment, and mathematically quantified measurement were the essential bases for scientific study of the world.
  
  At the same time as Galileo, the English philosopher Francis Bacon was arguing in favor of science based on reason and factual evidence. Bacon was not a great scientist like Galileo, but he played a crucial role in articulating and promoting the new empirical science. Bacon saw that in addition to increasing human understanding, science could be used to benefit humankind. In Novum Organum, his most important work, he argued that humanity should "Pursue science in order that the human estate may be advanced."
  
  It was this commitment to the scientific study of the world, combined with the increasing secularism and individualism of European culture, that gave birth to the Enlightenment -- the Age of Reason -- of the eighteenth century.
  
• The Age of Reason
• The Age of Reason, also known as "The Enlightenment", starts in the seventeenth century and reaches its high point in the middle of the eighteenth century. It marks humankind's emergence from the "Ages of Faith" into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and respect for humanity. The thinkers of the Enlightenment believed that human reason could discover the natural laws of the universe, determine the natural rights of humankind, and thereby achieve continuous progress in human knowledge, technology, and society.
  
  A major stimulus for the Enlightenment was the scientific discovery of universal natural laws. By the late 1600s, thanks to the work of scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton, universal laws were established for mechanics, optics, and gravity. The thinkers of the Enlightenment focused on developing this knowledge of the natural world, and on trying to apply the scientific method to the study of humanity and society.
  
  Though still unusual and often dangerous, skepticism of religious claims became more common in eighteenth-century Europe, partly as a consequence of the development of a more scientific view of the universe. The Scottish philosopher, David Hume, wrote skeptically about miracles (in Section X of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748), and about religion in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (although he prudently delayed publication of this work until after his death).
  
  While some of the leading Enlightenment figures were atheists, and others were Christians, the most distinctive religious attitude of the Enlightenment was Deism. Deists believed in a "god of nature" that created the universe but then left the universe to run by itself. The Deist "Creator" could not contravene the laws of nature. Deism rejects the theistic belief in a personal god who answers prayers, talks to prophets, and intervenes in human affairs. Just as the philosophers of ancient China and Greece believed that gods and the supernatural were too unknowable to serve as a basis for human ethics and knowledge, the Deists believed that ethics and knowledge must be grounded in human reason and nature, not in claims of supernatural revelation. In most areas there is little or no practical difference between deists and godless humanists.
  
• Kant and the Enlightenment
• In Germany, the philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) transformed the studies of metaphysics and ethics. Though a religious believer himself, Kant offered a rational basis for morality that required no reference to God or the supernatural.
  
  Although best known for his very dense and lengthy explorations of profound metaphysical problems, Kant once wrote a two page article for a monthly newspaper that had invited essays on the question "What is Enlightenment?" His opening paragraph is still worth quoting:
  
  Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's own understanding without the guidance of another. This immaturity is self-incurred if its cause is not lack of understanding, but lack of resolution and courage to use it without the guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is therefore: Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding!
  
  The Continuum of Humanist Education has adopted Kant's motto of the Enlightenment:
  
  Sapere Aude! - Dare to know!
  
• The Philosophes
• Enlightenment thought was championed by a group of influential French philosophers called the "philosophes." The high point of the French Enlightenment was the creation of the Encyclopedia -- the first comprehensive account of human knowledge -- compiled between 1751 and 1765 by Denis Diderot with the help of fellow philosophes such as D'Alembert, Rousseau, La Mettrie, Helvetius and D'Holbach. The Encyclopedia clearly expressed their naturalistic thinking and their skeptical attitude toward religion.
  
  Perhaps the most influential political thinker of the Enlightenment was Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. Montesquieu developed the concept of a democratic republic with a "separation of powers" to help guarantee individual freedoms. Another of the philosophes, Voltaire, became famous for his crusades against injustice and his stinging critiques of Christianity.
  
  The ideas of the philosophes influenced the French Revolution, especially its secularism and republicanism, and were articulated for the ages in the Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789). Tragically, the intolerance and excesses of the revolutionary "Terror" went against the most basic principles of the Enlightenment champions of "the rights of man."
  
• The American Revolution
• Across the Atlantic, the intellectual leaders of the American colonies were drawn to the new thinking of the Enlightenment. Many of the most distinguished leaders of the American revolution -- Jefferson, Washington, Franklin, Madison, and Thomas Paine -- were powerfully influenced by Enlightenment thought. Jefferson and Franklin both spent time in Paris absorbing the influence of the philosophes.
• Skeptical of religious authority, the leaders of the American revolution -- Deist and Christian alike -- believed separation of church and state was necessary to guarantee freedom of conscience. Montesquieu's idea of the separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government played the key role in the development of the "checks and balances" of the new republic's political structure. The Enlightenment concept of inalienable freedoms -- the right to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" -- underpinned the American revolution, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights, and has become woven into America's fundamental image of itself.
  
  The American Revolution can be viewed as the final chapter of the Age of Reason, when ideas that were once heretical came to form the basis of a new nation: a nation based not on ethnicity or religion, but on the promise of individual rights and freedom.
• Into the modern world
• In looking at the humanist tradition -- and the forerunners of modern humanist thought -- we have been focusing on a stream of thought which trickled through millennia otherwise dominated by superstition and unquestioned authority. But by the time we reach the Enlightenment, the trickle has turned into a torrent. Humanist thinking -- such as rejection of supernatural beliefs and a focus on human improvement in this world -- has become so widespread as to be commonplace, at least in intellectual life. By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, humanist ideas have entered the mainstream of intellectual debate, and that intellectual debate is broader and more diverse than ever before.
  
  This brief history of the development of humanist ideas, therefore, ends with the Enlightenment and the birth of the modern world based on the humanist values of science, human rights, secularism, and free inquiry. The next stage in the development of humanism we will touch upon is the creation of humanist organizations.
• Organized humanism
• Some of the ancient schools of humanist thought, such as Epicureanism, were associated with organized movements. These schools of thought disappeared with the decline and fall of the Roman Empire and the rise to power of the Early Christian Church. The humanist organizations that exist in the world today have all been created in the last two centuries.
  
  In Western societies dominated by Christianity, usually enforced by the power of the state, it has been difficult and dangerous to criticize religious views or advance an alternative way of understanding the world. Historically, this has usually meant that humanist views have been hidden, or only expressed in coded language by small groups of people. While there are reports of secret societies of atheists and freethinkers in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries -- for example, among Freemasons -- public groups of freethinkers did not become widespread until the nineteenth century. The growth of humanist groups also corresponds with the general growth of civil society and the spread of voluntary organizations focusing on ideas and issues.
  
  The nineteenth-century humanist groups used a bewildering variety of names to describe their worldview. Descriptions included
  
  * Rationalist
  * Feethinker / Freethought
  * Non-Confessional
  * Atheist
  * Secularist (the term "Secularism" was coined by the English social reformer George Jacob Holyoake in 1841)
  * Naturalist
  * Laique (in the French-speaking world)
  * Positivist (after the Positivism of the early nineteenth century French sociologist, August Comte)
  * Agnostic (a term coined by the British scientist T.H. Huxley in 1870)
  * Ethical Culture (a worldwide movement founded in 1876 by New Yorker Felix Adler)
  * Free Religious (in Germany)
  
• Some of these groups were primarily anti-clerical, focused on critiquing religion and the power of the clergy, while others saw themselves as a new, progressive, non-theistic form of religion.
  
  "Humanist" was not widely used in its modern sense until the publication of the "Humanist Manifesto" in the U.S. in 1933 (see Lesson 2, Manifestoes and other statements of humanism). The term "humanist" quickly spread as the preferred description for non-theistic people and groups who believed in promoting human welfare without reference to gods or the supernatural. Increasingly, these groups saw themselves neither as religious nor anti-religious but as a positive, ethical replacement for religion.
  
  After the Second World War, leaders from Britain, the Netherlands, and the U.S.A. led the way in creating the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), a new global umbrella organization for national humanist groups. Its founding members included groups from the U.S.A., Europe, and India -- organizations whose mission is to preserve not only the cultural humanism of historical tradition, but also to promote lifestance humanism, a contemporary worldview offering a framework for everyday life. It is lifestance humanism which we'll explore in Lesson 2.
• Darwin and evolution
• Natural evolution was the final piece in the puzzle for those positing a naturalistic explanation of the world and humanity's place in it. Evolution explained how intelligent beings could arise from a process lacking intelligence. The science of evolution, first explained by Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species : By Means of Natural Selection in 1859, galvanized the scientific community and shook intellectual Christianity to its foundations. It not only overturned the Biblical claim that humans and all the other species had been created by God as separate and unchanging forms, but also removed the need to propose an intelligent "Creator" to explain the astonishing complexity of life on Earth.
  
  The explanatory power of Darwin's theory meant that it was quickly accepted by the scientific community. Today, even the Roman Catholic Pope accepts evolution, and it is rejected mostly by die-hard Christian fundamentalists in the United States; though, increasingly, Muslim fundamentalists are opposing the teaching of evolution in Europe as well as the Middle East. (See Evolution, Creationism, and the Nature of Science, the cornerstone course in COHE Study Area II, Science and Humanism, for more on the theory of evolution.)
  
• 5 Review questions - with marking by computer.
• 3 Essay Review questions - with suggestions by COHE markers
  

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Introduction to Humanism: A Primer on the History, Philosophy, and Goals of Humanism

Humanism is a godless philosophy based on reason and compassion ... is a ten-word, static definition of humanism. The Continuum of Humanist Education (COHE) is a million-word, dynamic, ongoing exploration of humanism. This brief survey course, Introduction to Humanism, is going to fall somewhere in between, providing a one- to two-hour overview of the history, philosophy, and goals of humanism.

By the time you've finished the two lessons of this module, you'll have a general understanding of what humanism is (and what it is not!), the role of humanism in history, the core principles of humanism, and what humanism offers the individual and society. We hope this course will inspire you to delve deeper into the rich culture of humanism by exploring other courses within the Continuum.

Introduction to Humanism is divided into two lessons. Lesson 1 summarizes the history of humanist ideas and their role in the development of the modern world. Lesson 2 explores the meaning and scope of the humanist lifestance in the current era. You are free to navigate the course in sequential order or skip to selected topics according to your own interest. You may also return as often as you like. Refer your friends; this module is open to the public with no registration and no tuition.

Although not at all required, we hope you'll consider registering as a COHE student before reading this free demo course. Registration is free, with no obligation to enroll in COHE courses. Registering and logging in prior to reading the lessons of Introduction to Humanism will unlock your door to the COHE Message Board, where other COHE students are discussing and debating the stimulating topics and provocative questions they encounter in their courses here, this one included.

Important: You must be registered and logged in if you wish to enroll in other COHE courses, even those without tuition. Only this demo course is open to the public without registration.

Before moving on to our lessons, let's lay the foundation by offering some formal definitions of humanism. You'll be better prepared to articulate your own definition after finishing this course.

Defining humanism

"...seeking, without religion, the best in, and for, human beings." Chambers Pocket Dictionary

"...a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially: a philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason." Merriam Webster Dictionary

"...a non-religious philosophy, based on liberal human values." Little Oxford Dictionary

"...an appeal to reason in contrast to revelation or religious authority as a means of finding out about the natural world and destiny of man, and also giving a grounding for morality... Humanist ethics is also distinguished by placing the end of moral action in the welfare of humanity rather than in fulfilling the will of God." Oxford Companion to Philosophy

"The rejection of religion in favor of the advancement of humanity by its own efforts." Collins Concise Dictionary

"That which is characteristically human, not supernatural, that which belongs to man and not to external nature, that which raises man to his greatest height or gives him, as man, his greatest satisfaction…" Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences

"...a morally concerned style of intellectual atheism openly avowed by only a small minority of individuals but tacitly accepted by a wide spectrum of educated people in all parts of the Western world." Oxford Companion to the Mind

"A system of thought that centers on humans and their values, capacities, and worth." American Heritage Dictionary

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Humanist Manifesto III

Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that, without supernaturalism, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity.

The lifestance of Humanism—guided by reason, inspired by compassion, and informed by experience—encourages us to live life well and fully. It evolved through the ages and continues to develop through the efforts of thoughtful people who recognize that values and ideals, however carefully wrought, are subject to change as our knowledge and understandings advance.

This document is part of an ongoing effort to manifest in clear and positive terms the conceptual boundaries of Humanism, not what we must believe but a consensus of what we do believe. It is in this sense that we affirm the following:

Knowledge of the world is derived by observation, experimentation, and rational analysis. Humanists find that science is the best method for determining this knowledge as well as for solving problems and developing beneficial technologies. We also recognize the value of new departures in thought, the arts, and inner experience—each subject to analysis by critical intelligence.

Humans are an integral part of nature, the result of unguided evolutionary change. Humanists recognize nature as self-existing. We accept our life as all and enough, distinguishing things as they are from things as we might wish or imagine them to be. We welcome the challenges of the future, and are drawn to and undaunted by the yet to be known.

Ethical values are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience. Humanists ground values in human welfare shaped by human circumstances, interests, and concerns and extended to the global ecosystem and beyond. We are committed to treating each person as having inherent worth and dignity, and to making informed choices in a context of freedom consonant with responsibility.

Life’s fulfillment emerges from individual participation in the service of humane ideals. We aim for our fullest possible development and animate our lives with a deep sense of purpose, finding wonder and awe in the joys and beauties of human existence, its challenges and tragedies, and even in the inevitability and finality of death. Humanists rely on the rich heritage of human culture and the lifestance of Humanism to provide comfort in times of want and encouragement in times of plenty.

Humans are social by nature and find meaning in relationships. Humanists long for and strive toward a world of mutual care and concern, free of cruelty and its consequences, where differences are resolved cooperatively without resorting to violence. The joining of individuality with interdependence enriches our lives, encourages us to enrich the lives of others, and inspires hope of attaining peace, justice, and opportunity for all.

Working to benefit society maximizes individual happiness. Progressive cultures have worked to free humanity from the brutalities of mere survival and to reduce suffering, improve society, and develop global community. We seek to minimize the inequities of circumstance and ability, and we support a just distribution of nature’s resources and the fruits of human effort so that as many as possible can enjoy a good life.

Humanists are concerned for the well being of all, are committed to diversity, and respect those of differing yet humane views. We work to uphold the equal enjoyment of human rights and civil liberties in an open, secular society and maintain it is a civic duty to participate in the democratic process and a planetary duty to protect nature’s integrity, diversity, and beauty in a secure, sustainable manner.

Thus engaged in the flow of life, we aspire to this vision with the informed conviction that humanity has the ability to progress toward its highest ideals. The responsibility for our lives and the kind of world in which we live is ours and ours alone.

Copyright © 2003 by the American Humanist Association (AHA). Republished on the COHE website with permission.

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Humanism - Amsterdam Declaration 2002

Humanism is the outcome of a long tradition of free thought that has inspired many of the world's great thinkers and creative artists and gave rise to science itself.

The fundamentals of modern Humanism are as follows:

Humanism is ethical. It affirms the worth, dignity and autonomy of the individual and the right of every human being to the greatest possible freedom compatible with the rights of others. Humanists have a duty of care to all of humanity including future generations. Humanists believe that morality is an intrinsic part of human nature based on understanding and a concern for others, needing no external sanction.

Humanism is rational. It seeks to use science creatively, not destructively. Humanists believe that the solutions to the world's problems lie in human thought and action rather than divine intervention. Humanism advocates the application of the methods of science and free inquiry to the problems of human welfare. But Humanists also believe that the application of science and technology must be tempered by human values. Science gives us the means but human values must propose the ends.

Humanism supports democracy and human rights. Humanism aims at the fullest possible development of every human being. It holds that democracy and human development are matters of right. The principles of democracy and human rights can be applied to many human relationships and are not restricted to methods of government.

Humanism insists that personal liberty must be combined with social responsibility. Humanism ventures to build a world on the idea of the free person responsible to society, and recognises our dependance on, and responsibility for, the natural world. Humanism is undogmatic, imposing no creed upon its adherents. It is thus committed to education free from indoctrination.

Humanism is a response to the widespread demand for an alternative to dogmatic religion. The world's major religions claim to be based on revelations fixed for all time, and many seek to impose their world-views on all of humanity. Humanism recognises that reliable knowledge of the world and ourselves arises through a continuing process of observation, evaluation, and revision.

Humanism values artistic creativity and imagination and recognises the transforming power of art. Humanism affirms the importance of literature, music, and the visual and performing arts for personal development and fulfilment.

Humanism is a lifestance aiming at the maximum possible fulfilment through the cultivation of ethical and creative living and offers an ethical and rational means of addressing the challenges of our times. Humanism can be a way of life for everyone everywhere.

Our primary task is to make human beings aware in the simplest terms of what Humanism can mean to them and what it commits them to. By utilising free inquiry, the power of science, and creative imagination for the furtherance of peace and in the service of compassion, we have confidence that we have the means to solve the problems that confront us all. We call upon all who share this conviction to associate themselves with us in this endeavour. (International Humanist and Ethical Union 50th Congress, Amsterdam, 2002)

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